Context
Forest ecosystems: vulnerability to climate change
Air pollution and climate change are tightly linked ( De Marco et al., 2022 ). Air quality degradation occurs concurrently with climate change, affecting natural habitats, plants, ecosystems, and biodiversity stability in the long term ( Agathokleous et al., 2022 ). Climate change, in combination with air pollution and other natural and anthropogenic stresses, are likely to increase the risk of extinction for many flora and fauna species ( IPCC, 2022 ) and will result in substantial changes in the structure and function of forest ecosystems.
Forest ecosystems: a major opportunity for climate change adaptation and mitigation
Globally, the forestry sector has a significant mitigation potential but is estimated to account for 17.4% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Forests also present a major opportunity for climate change adaptation and mitigation, as they have the potential to act either as a carbon source and accelerate climate change (through deforestation and forest degradation), or as a carbon sink and an adaptation strategy (through afforestation and sustainable management). Recognizing the important role of forests as they relate to climate change and wisely managing their potential capacity is crucial for future climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Many forest-related initiatives and strategies have been developed to utilize the potential of forests for climate change mitigation and adaptation. The Kyoto Protocol indicated that forests could contribute to meeting carbon emission reduction targets, and REDD ++ (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries) has become an important means of achieving these targets ( Mollicone et al., 2007 ). Despite many available initiatives and strategies, the extent to which forests contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation remains limited.
Combating air pollution is a great challenge, which can hardly be addressed by local efforts and policies alone, especially because of the major involvement of secondary pollutants and transport of air pollutants across countries, regions, and continents ( Jbaily et al., 2022 ) . Climate change and long-range transport might reduce the benefits gained from local-to-regional ozone control strategies, by increasing background ozone levels in the future ( Sicard et al., 2017 ). Hence, climate change mitigation would require the concurrent mitigation of air quality pollutants, and air quality impairment and climate change should be addressed together. Moreover, not all policies for climate have positive feedback on air quality and vice versa.